The Elephant (Loxodonta & Elephas)

Three living species of elephant roam today’s wild landscapes: the African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana), the African forest elephant (L. cyclotis), and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), which itself is divided into five recognized subspecies.

Elephants trace their lineage back to North Africa, descending from mastodon and mammoth ancestors that migrated southward from Europe. Over millennia, these giants evolved into the world’s largest land mammals, with adult bulls tipping the scales at 2 800–6 500 kg and cows at 1 800–2 800 kg.

Despite their size, elephants face critical physiological challenges.

To limit water loss, since they lack sweat glands, they bathe in mud and dust, creating a protective seal that also wards off flies and ticks. They dissipate excess body heat through their enormous ears, which are crisscrossed by large blood vessels and kept in constant gentle motion to enhance cooling.

Elephants live in tight-knit, matriarchal family herds led by the oldest and often largest cow. Their iconic tusks are modified incisors made of ivory, and each lower jaw contains a single dentine molar at any given time. When each tooth wears down, it is replaced sequentially until the sixth set gives out, typically around age 60–65, after which the elephant can no longer process its fibrous diet and succumbs to starvation.

Elephants eat both tree leaves and grass, and strip bark from trees to chew for additional minerals. An adult elephant consumes up to 150 kg of forage per day. They deroot trees and cause severe damage to eco-systems and other biodiversity.

Across continents, conservation statuses vary. Poaching and habitat loss have endangered elephants in Asia and parts of North and Central Africa. South of the Zambezi River, elephant populations in many of today’s South African parks and reserves have exploded, doubling approximately every ten years and threatening the very ecosystems that they once helped to balance.

Additional important information is available at:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316165649_Focus_on_the_African_Elephant_Loxodonta_africana

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374976830_African_Elephant_Biodiversity_Narrative_Part_1_of_3_Historic_Current_Conundrum_CITATION_Furstenburg_D_2023_African_Elephant_Biodiversity_Narrative_-_Part_1_of_3_Historic_Current_Conundrum_Veteran-SA

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375412150_African_Elephant_Biodiversity_Narrative_-_Part_2_of_3_Populations_Destruction_Eco-Capacity_CITATION_Furstenburg_D_2023_African_Elephant_Biodiversity_Narrative_-_Part_2_of_3_Populations_Destruction_Eco

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378078486_Wildlife_Game_southern_Africa_PART_18_Die_Gevlekte_Hiena_as_n_Spesie_Crocuta_crocuta_Erxleben_1777_CITE_AS_Furstenburg_D_2024_Wildlife_Game_southern_Africa_PART_18_-_Die_Gevlekte_Hiena_as_n_Spesie_C